Free Essays on The First President

First President George Washington George Washington was born in Westmoreland County, VA, on February 11, 1731. Washington’s family made a living by farming, land buying, trading, milling, and in the iron industry. George had ten brothers and sisters, four of which were his half siblings. George’s mother, Mary Ball, was Augustine’s second wife whom he had six of the ten children with. Little is known about George’s childhood, other than that he received little formal education. At a young age he showed a great skill in mathematics and soon got into surveying land. At the young age of 16 George secured a commission as surveyor of Culpepper County. In 1752, at the age of 21, George inherited Mt. Vernon from his brother Lawrence. In the early 1750’s both Britain and France wanted to occupy the upper Ohio valley area. The governor of Virginia, Robert Dinwiddie, sent Washington with an expeditionary force to guard an intended British fort at the forks of the Ohio River. While enroute Washington learned that the French had taken the fort, so George advanced to within 50 miles of the now French fort and erected Fort Necessity. On May 28, 1754 Washington ambushed a small French detachment, they killed ten men to include the commander, Joseph Coulon de Villiers. This incident started the French and Indian War. The French claimed that the detachment was on a peaceful mission, Washington thought it was spying. Washington returned to Fort Necessity, which a large French force attacked on 3 July. Washington and his men were only able to hold Page 2 out for one ... Free Essays on The First President Free Essays on The First President First President George Washington George Washington was born in Westmoreland County, VA, on February 11, 1731. Washington’s family made a living by farming, land buying, trading, milling, and in the iron industry. George had ten brothers and sisters, four of which were his half siblings. George’s mother, Mary Ball, was Augustine’s second wife whom he had six of the ten children with. Little is known about George’s childhood, other than that he received little formal education. At a young age he showed a great skill in mathematics and soon got into surveying land. At the young age of 16 George secured a commission as surveyor of Culpepper County. In 1752, at the age of 21, George inherited Mt. Vernon from his brother Lawrence. In the early 1750’s both Britain and France wanted to occupy the upper Ohio valley area. The governor of Virginia, Robert Dinwiddie, sent Washington with an expeditionary force to guard an intended British fort at the forks of the Ohio River. While enroute Washington learned that the French had taken the fort, so George advanced to within 50 miles of the now French fort and erected Fort Necessity. On May 28, 1754 Washington ambushed a small French detachment, they killed ten men to include the commander, Joseph Coulon de Villiers. This incident started the French and Indian War. The French claimed that the detachment was on a peaceful mission, Washington thought it was spying. Washington returned to Fort Necessity, which a large French force attacked on 3 July. Washington and his men were only able to hold Page 2 out for one ...

Definition and Examples of Gas in Chemistry

Definition and Examples of Gas in Chemistry A gas is defined as a state of matter consisting of particles that have neither a defined volume nor defined shape. It is one of the four fundamental states of matter, along with solids, liquids, and plasma. Under ordinary conditions, the gas state is between the liquid and plasma states. A gas may consist of atoms of one element (e.g., H2, Ar) or of compounds (e.g., HCl, CO2) or mixtures (e.g., air, natural gas). Examples of Gases Whether or not a substance is a gas depends on its temperature and pressure. Examples of gases at standard temperature and pressure include: air (a mixture of gases)chlorine at room temperature and pressureozoneoxygenhydrogenwater vapor or steam List of the Elemental Gases There are 11 elemental gases (12 if you count ozone). Five are homonuclear molecules, while six are monatomic: H2 - hydrogenN2 - nitrogenO2 - oxygen (plus O3 is ozone)F2 - fluorineCl2 - chlorineHe - heliumNe - neonAr - argonKr - kryptonXe - xenonRn - radon Except for hydrogen, which is at the top left side of the periodic table, elemental gases are on the right side of the table. Properties of Gases Particles in a gas are widely separated from each other. At low temperature and ordinary pressure, they resemble an ideal gas in which the interaction between the particles is negligible and collisions between them are completely elastic. At higher pressures, intermolecular bonds between gas particles have a greater effect on the properties. Because of the space between atoms or molecules, most gases are transparent. A few are faintly colored, such as chlorine and fluorine. Gases tend not to react as much as other states of matter to electric and gravitational fields. Compared with liquids and solids, gases have low viscosity and low density. Origin of the Word Gas The word gas was coined by 17th-century Flemish chemist J.B. van Helmont. There are two theories about the origin of the word. One is that it is Helmonts phonetic transcription of the Greek word Chaos, with the g in Dutch pronounced like the ch in chaos. Paracelsuss alchemical use of chaos referred to rarified water. The other theory is that van Helmont took the word from geist or gahst, which means spirit or ghost. Gas vs Plasma A gas may contain electrically charged atoms or molecules called ions. In fact, its common for regions of a gas to contain random, transient charged regions because of van der Waals forces. Ions of like charge repel each other, while ions of opposite charge attract each other. If the fluid consists entirely of charged particles or if the particles are permanently charged, the state of matter is a plasma rather than a gas.

The Re-emergence of Internatiol War- Was Mueller Overly Optimistic in Essay

The Re-emergence of Internatiol War- Was Mueller Overly Optimistic in the End of War Debate - Essay Example He considers that there was strong emotional opposition to war when the First World War was fought, and that by the time of the Second World War, this sentiment was so strongly advanced that war became obsolete1.Mueller’s arguments follow two perspectives. The first is the recognition that war has become much less popular, and the second is an explanation for this pattern. Both of these viewpoints are important, and it is only by examining both of these can the relevance of Mueller’s perspectives to the current world situation be understood. The term war is a word that has many uses and is defined differently depending on the situation that is occurring, and the desires of the people describing what is occurring. Understanding these distinctions is important in examining Muller’s arguments, as he uses a specific definition of war and argues his points on this basis. As an expression, war is often used to refer to any strife or conflict, whether within a state or between different states. This period of conflict may not be longstanding, and the use of the word war may be used to escalate the perception of the events. The term war is also used as a way of describing a particular campaign. For example, two well known ‘wars’ that the United States has created are the ‘war on terrorism’ and the ‘war on drugs’, phrases that have become well known since their instigation. However, the term is most relevant when used to describe a serious, extended armed conflict that occurs within a state (civil war) or between states (international war)2. One useful definition is that war is â€Å"sustained coordinated violence between political organisations†3 Muller’s argument is focused on war occurring between international bodies and he argues that major war between important states has not occurred since the Second World War, and that this long, unusual, period of peace is due to a change in the perceptio n of war. The hypothesis that major war has become obsolete does not state that war never occurs, rather that it has moved from being a viable option, to something that is only considered under extreme circumstances, meaning while it may still happen, it is rare4. There is a significant amount of evidence supporting this proposition. Since the end of the 1980s the overall level of large-scale violence has decreased worldwide, both in terms of the amount of conflicts and the number of deaths. Furthermore, within the same time period, even the prevalence of non-state conflict has decreased5. Mueller’s argument considers that peace has come as the result in of a change in perceptions, with war becoming aberrant or not considered in the same way that two men having an argument do not consider duelling one another, and how slavery is no longer considered a legitimate option6. However, war is generally not caused, or prevented by a single factor; instead there are many different re levant factors that can interact with one another7. One perspective on why international war has decreased in prevalence is that in the current era, there are many less rivalries between great powers, and therefore, the likelihood of a large scale international war is significantly decreased8. Simply put, the major states do not have as much to argue about as they once did. This is also influenced by the fact that the international

Identify and discuss the major challenges that Costa Coffee will face Essay

Identify and discuss the major challenges that Costa Coffee will face in its operations in the French market and propose suitable recommendations for overcoming or mitigating the identified challenges - Essay Example In spite of the success observed in the Costa Coffee sales in France, there are several challenges that the Costa Coffee will face inevitably. These challenges mainly involve the economic difficulties. The prime business challenges faced by the Costa Coffee as a whole are directly in relation with the economic recession from 2008. This is because the customers have been observed to become more cautious with their discretionary spending due to the high personal debt as well as unemployment. Further, social as well as cultural challenges might also be faced by the Costa Coffee. The cafe will have to not only sell Coffee but also maintain the ambience and surroundings of the cafe. This is because people not only come to drink coffee but also come to calm down and have a relaxed experience. The better the ambience, the more people will spend on coffee. Another difficulty that the Costa coffee might face is the fact that people are much more aware environmentally in the recent era. The so urce from which the coffee beans are produced as well as the way they design their supply chain as well as prepare and sell their product is of great concern by the French customers. Furthermore, the Costa Coffee is faced by great competition from other leading coffee shops within France. These include firstly star bucks as well as coffee republic and many others. This competition tends to steal the coffee customers that are vital for the increase of sales for the Costa Coffee. Further, the Costa Coffee in France would also face problems in association with the intense price competition. Due to the high prices in Costa Coffee, it is seen to target only the upper middle class and the privileged class. Also, any alteration in the development of information technology resulting in a change in the markets would definitely pose a threat to the Costa Coffee in France. The major problems faced by the Costa Coffee can be dealt by focusing on attracting more customers. This can be done by

The role of the health and social care worker Essay Example for Free

The role of the health and social care worker Essay A working relationship is different from a personal relationship because a working relationship is more professional; there are boundaries, specific objectives and purposes. There are professional codes of conduct, employer policies and procedures also there are time limits and being in some cases cone way relationship. The three collages for whom I work with and there job roles are activity staff, care staff and music therapy staff. I communicate with these collages and work together to establish and maintain the trust and confidence of service users and care staff. I also have a good communicating relationship with these. Giving the policies; and procedures and communicating in partnership. It is important to work in partnership together in the health care to achieve the best outcomes for the individuals and its also important because collages have all different working skills, knowledge and rolls, Partnership also to share discussions and making information relation in common concern. Task B Reflective account I was with a collage in work with a member of care staff. I was going to hoist and transfer a service user, using a hoist. My collage wanted to go on break, and had an idea that would be quicker than using a hoist and using the correct method appropriately and safely. My collage wanted to lift the service user up from there wheelchair and transfer them onto a bed, but I was totally against this. I did not consider, to use this type of method of transfer, as I felt that I would injure, myself, the service user and my collage. And risk the possibility of loosing my job and loosing someone’s life. This incident involved conflict between my working collage because I did not want to go through with it, and work in an unsafe manner. I went to my line manager and said about this situation. I had to report this by filling in an incident form. I did not get the support at the right time, as my manger was not present. I think that I dealt with this incident effective and professionally and maintain a good level of care to the service user. I could have responded differently by not being professional and keeping my working relationship, but I had to because this was a work related incident.

The Physics of Light Propulsion :: Physics Science Technology Essays

The Physics of Light Propulsion Imagine a mode of transportation which allows a craft to ride upon a beam of light. This craft uses virtually no fuel, simply the air around us. The uses for such a craft would be endless, launching small satellites into orbit and in the future launching vessels much like today’s shuttles. This idea is no longer a product of science fiction but rather a reality. It is all made possible by the physics which controls everything in our everyday lives. There are two main components to this light propelled craft. The light source is a precision high-powered laser beam. The craft is a large, highly polished parabolic mirror that is designed to capture the laser beam. With the laser in a fixed position on the ground the mirror focuses the beam, rapidly heating the air, creating a wave of heated air out the back. This forces the vehicle in the opposite direction. As the beam is rapidly pulsed, the vehicle is continuously propelled forward. The laser pointer which many people now carry around on key chains was not thought as such a trivial toy or gadget ten years ago. The laser technology itself is a very complicated endeavor. The simple circuitry has evolved from years of work to make the theory behind the amplification of light possible. Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation or LASER, is best understood by beginning at the atomic level where the basis of an atom and its energy levels can be identified. In even the most basic chemistry class the atomic structure is one of the first lessons which is taught. The circular shells of an atom are placed around the nucleus with the electrons placed on these levels. Two in the first layer, eight in the next continuing on to the appropriate number. These shells are formed because electrons are limited to a series of fixed values, this is an example of quantization1. The law of conservation of energy is applied in that an electron may fall to a lower shell, but in doing this it must give up an amount of energy equal to the difference between the two levels. This energy is given up as light. Light is also considered to be quantized. It can be represented as groups of photons. Each photon carries one quantum of light energy. The amount of energy in a quantum depends on the wavelength of the light or the frequency.

Marketing intelligence: Final Exam Essay

1) Which of the following is NOT a step that might be used to improve the quality of a firm’s marketing intelligence? A. Watching how the stock market reacts to interest rate changes B. Motivating distributors to pass along important intelligence from the marketplace. C. Collecting competitive intelligence by buying a competitor’s products D. Setting up a consumer panel 2) When Molly’s parents retired, they decided they wanted to travel. They found an ideal job that allows them to travel for free, but the only catch is they have to stay at Holiday Inns. During each stay, they test all the amenities offered by the motel and evaluate each. The evaluation forms are sent to the motel headquarters where it becomes part of the motel’s __________ systems. A. Accountability information system (AIS) B. Marketing intelligence C. Experiential research data D. Marketing research 3) Typically, companies budget about 11-12 percent of company sales for marketing research. A. True B. Fasle 4) Which of the following is NOT a component part of total customer value? A. Psychic value B. Image value C. Product value D. Services value 5) Lee is constantly begging his mother to buy him an iPod because the most popular kids at his school all have one. His mother contends that he’ll just break it or lose the music player if she buys it for him. For Lee, the most popular kids in his school are examples of a _______________. A. Social class B. Demographic group C. Subculture D. Reference group 6) A(n) ________________ is likely to offer informal advice and information about a product or product category. A. Opinion leader B. Diversity marketing program C. Primary reference group D. Aspirational reference group 7) Which factors have the broadest and deepest influence on consumer behavior? A. Cultural B. Psychological C. Personal D. Social 8) Painting and consulting are considered industrial goods because ______________. A. Most firms do not seek them directly B. They are specialty goods C. They facilitate developing and managing the finished product D. They are considered â€Å"component materials† 9) When SAP software added a Windows-style â€Å"back† button to its industrial invoice management software, the new product ___________. A. Improved upon an existing product B. Used a new product line C. Used a marketing diversification strategy D. Added to an existing product line 10) Ayal and Zif argue that going into fewer countries is advisable when ___________. A. Population is low, and income size and growth are high in the initial countries chosen. B. Population and income size are high, and population growth is low in the initial countries chosen. C. Population, income size, and growth are high in the initial countries chosen. D. Population, income size and growth are low in the initial countries chosen. 11) Which is the last major decision in international marketing? A. Deciding on the marketing program B. Deciding which markets to enter C. Deciding how to enter the market D. Deciding on the marketing organization 12) Which of the following is NOT a step that might be used to improve the quality of a firm’s marketing intelligence? A. Watching how the stock market reacts to interest rate changes B. Motivating distributors to pass along  important intelligence from the marketplace. C. Collecting competitive intelligence by buying a competitor’s products D. Setting up a consumer panel 13) Which is correct about â€Å"noise† in the communication process? A. It mostly happens during the decoding stage B. It interferes with intended communication C. It is controllable D. It has only one source 14) Marketing __________ is the art and science of choosing target markets and getting, keeping, and growing customers through creating, delivering, and communicating superior customer value. A. segmentation B. integration C. internally D. management 15) Public policy makers have developed a substantial body of laws and regulations to govern advertising. For these reasons, an important step in developing anadvertising campaign is _____________. A. The social responsibility review B. Asking network censors what to cut out of the communication C. Preparing a copy strategy statement D. The creative development of the message 16) Which of the following is an example of primary data that would be used by Topps card company to determine popularity of its new hologram baseball card series? A. Sales records for baseball cards gathered by the industry’s trade council. B. An article about the hologram cards in a recent issue of Sports Illustrated C. Data from sales records kept by exclusive dealers of Topp’s hologram series D. Input from focus groups that was put together specifically to discuss their perception of popularity of the hologram card series 17) A marketing information system (MIS) consists of ___________. A. An organized collection of comprehensive data about individual customers, prospects, or suspects that is currently accessible for marketing purposes. B. The systematic design, collection, analysis, and reporting of data and findings relevant to a specific marketing situation. C. The people,  equipment, and procedures to gather, sort, analyze, evaluate, and distribute needed, timely, and accurate information to marketing decision makers. D. A set of procedures and sources used by managers to obtain everyday information and relevant developments in the marketing environment. 18) The step in the marketing research process thatincludes determining who will be sampled is to _______________. A. Collect the information B. Develop the research plan C. Define the problem and research objectives D. Make the decision based on the project outcomes 19) All of the following are steps in the marketing research process EXCEPT: A. Compare data to government sources B. Collect the information C. Define the problem and research objectives D. Present the findings 20) The ____________ consists of all the organizations that acquire goods and services used in the production of other products or services that are sold, rented, or supplied to other customers. A. Consumer market B. Institutional market C. Government market D. Business market 21) Toyota, the maker of the Scion brand, using what kind of brand strategy with Scion products? A. Individual names B. Blanket family names C. Corporate names D. Separate family names 22) When SAP software added a Windows-style â€Å"back† button to its industrial invoice management software, the new product ___________. A. Improved upon an existing product B. Used a marketing diversification strategy C. Added to an existing product line D. Used a new product line 23) When customers buy on the basis of a reference price or because the price conveys a particular quality image to them, they are being influenced by ____________. A. The going rates of competitors B. Value augmented by perception C. The psychology of pricing D. Value pricing 24) A __________ pricing objective is suitable for a company that has overcapacity, intense competition, and changing customer needs. A. Maximum current revenue B. Maximum sales growth C. Survival D. Maximum current profit 25) A concept in retailing that helps explain the emergence of new retailers is called the ___________ hypothesis. A. Service-assortment B. Product life-cycle C. Retail life cycle D. Wheel-of-retailing 26) Which of the following would NOT be considered part of a marketing communications program? A. An event sponsorship B. Personal selling C. A sales promotion D. Brand contact 27) McDonald’s franchisees get a small discount when they pay their bills for supplies within the first seven days (when the due date is 30 days after delivery). This is an example of ___________ within channel relations. A. Sharing the risks B. Territorial rights C. Price policies D. Conditions of sales 28) __________________ are the means by which firms attempt to inform, persuade, and remind customers about the products and brands they sell. A. Marketing communications B. Sales promotions C. Mass communications D. Brand images 29) Which of the following is most closely associated with a proactive marketing orientation? A. It represents the â€Å"make and sellâ€Å"philosophy. B. The marketer focuses on the customers’ latent needs. C. It is about understanding and meeting customers’ expressed needs. D. It involves delivering superior value 30) Marketing __________ is the art and science of choosing target markets and getting, keeping, and growing customers through creating, delivering, and communicating superior customer value. A. segmentation B. integration C. management D. internally 31) Which of the following is NOT a component part of total customer value? A.Product value B.Services value C.Psychic value D.Image value 32) About a year ago, Echo began renting her movies from Netflix. She perceived Netflix to be a better source because of the enhanced selection, the responsive customer service emails she has received in answer to her online queries, better pricing, and less effort compared to renting from the store in her town. Netflix has offered Echo better _________ than the local competition. A.Total customer cost B.Customer perceived value C.Customer delivered value D.Total customer value 33) Lowe’s home improvement stores strive to have nicer, more knowledgeable salespeople, a better product selection, and to maintain an impeccable image. These are all part of improving the offer via _____________. A.Reducing the buyer’s nonmonetary costs B.Reducing the product’s monetary costs to the buyers. C.Increasing the service value D.Increasing total customer value 34) _____________ are relatively homogeneous and enduring divisions in society, and may exhibit distinct product, brand, and media preferences. A.Subcultures B.Social classes C.Demographic groups D.Cultures 35) Lee is constantly begging his mother to buy him an iPod because the most popular kids at his school all have one. His mother contends that he’ll just break it or lose the music player if she buys it for him. For Lee, the most popular kids in his school are examples of a _______________. A.Social class B.Subculture C.Demographic group D.Reference group 36) Business buying behavior differs from consumer buying behavior in that _________. A.[Answer Text]Businesses buy products to accomplish a single goal, which varies by industry and business. B.The buyers for the business market are typically more geographically dispersed than those for the consumer market and the demand for products and services in the consumer market is unaffected by price fluctuations. C.The demand for business goods and services is derived from consumer’s final demand. D.Fewer people typically participate in or influence business buying decisions than in the consumer market. 37) The institutional market is best described as having _____________. A.Contract negotiations and fluctuating demand B.Low budgets and a captive clientele C.Derived demand, geographically concentratedsuppliers, and budgetary constraints. D.Demand elasticity and geographically concentrated suppliers 38) The ____________ consists of all the organizations that acquire goods and services used in the production of other products or services that are sold, rented, or supplied to other customers. A.Consumer market B.Business market C.Government market D.Institutional market 39) Toyota, the maker of the Scion brand, using what kind of brand strategy with Scion products? A.Individual names B.Separate family names C.Corporate names D.Blanket family names

Comparing Freedom of Expression in the Statutory Law and the Sharia Law Essay

Getting in touch with media law during the first semester of my Masters gave me a sense of the importance of law in general because it consists of acts and articles which organise most issues in the human’s life in a way that protects ethics and morals. Regardless of the hypocrisy and double-standards of the countries which raise high the slogan of Human Rights, I liked the Human Rights Conventions that were laid down by these countries. Therefore, I decided to research some points in these conventions that are related to my study in order to nurture my knowledge in this great field of the human sciences. Then, I thought deliberately about the benefit of exerting much effort to get such knowledge since it is existed, well-explained and well-organised, in handy books. But after looking by historical and religious study as far back as some centuries ago, I found that my own culture, Islam, had plenty of law provisions that helped its people not only to protect their ethics and morals, but also to spread them all over the world. Through deliberate and objective study, I found that many of the social reformers, whose thoughts led to the emergence of the modern criteria of human rights, were originally affected by the roots of the Islamic ulture. I also found a lot of those old and even modern reformers who praised the old provisions of the Sharia Law and they also praised the prosperity which was an outcome of implementing it. The Western writer Patricia Crone (2005: p. 218-219) said referring to how those old provisions of law were true bases of a moral society: â€Å"Medieval Muslims d id not write utopias in the sense of imaginary travel accounts or other descriptions of ideal societies which do not exist, †¦ they were not given to seeking ideals outside their own civilisation at all. But they did place a golden age right at the beginning of their own history, and their numerous accounts of this age add up to a detailed utopia of great emotive power†¦ It was a time when the Muslims had all the virtues of tribesmen and none of their vices, for thanks to Islam there was no feuding, no factionalism, and no disorder, just austerity, solidarity, and total devotion to the truth. Therefore, I decided to look for the provisions of that old law which are related to my study and compare them with their counterparts in the modern human rights’ conventions. In order to limit my research, I decided to take the articles related to my study, media law, in the Human Rights Act 1998 (HRA) of the British Law to represent the leading international human rights conventions. Part one: Preface Main Argument In this dissertation I am going to explain how both the HRA and the Sharia Law deal with the concept of freedom of expression. As long as such argument is new and uncommon because of the lack of references that studied it, which resulted in an ambiguous perception in the minds of people towards the Sharia Law and its sources, there must be a kind of primary definition of the Sharia Law, its sources and how the Sharia scholars (Sharia Jurists) deal with these sources to regulate law items. Sharia Law This expression is going to be referred to as a theological-historical concept since the Sharia was revealed through a prophet, this makes it a theological subject matter, and it is 15 centuries old, this gives it a historical background. Sharia (sari? ah) is all religious rituals that Allah (SWT) has imposed on Muslims, via his Prophet Mohammad (PBUH) regarding beliefs, rules and day-to-day life among Muslims themselves, and between Muslims and non-Muslims. It is â€Å"designed to govern the relations of Muslims with non-Muslims, whether inside or outside the territory of Islam. † Mahmoud Kamali says that Sharia is â€Å"the Islamic law as contained in the divine guidance of the Qur’an and the Sunnah. Yet, the expression Sharia Law is modern if compared with the word Fiqh, which historically used to mean â€Å"the awareness of Islamic rules from its sources by true inference. † Kamali defined the word Fiqh: â€Å"Islamic law as developed by Muslim Jurists. The term is often used synonymously with Sharia. † Therefore, like other contemporary researchers of similar topics, I am going to use the expression Sharia Law to mean the old word: Fiqh. Sources of the Sharia Law There is no difference between any of the Muslim scholars that the main sources of all information, not only about the details of the life of mankind, but also about the details of the whole universe are the Holy Qur’an, then, the Holy Sunnah. In addition, it is a matter of a universal belief among Muslims and many of non-Muslims that the Holy Qur’an in the hands of people is the real book revealed by Allah (SWT) to his Prophet Mohammad (PBUH) fourteen centuries ago. The same is the 100% authenticity of certain books of Hadith, i. e. Saheeh Al-Bukhari and Saheeh Muslim. These references are not considered comprehensive works; however, I feel that they could draw raw guidelines for me in my research in two ways: * They give me hints about how this issue is being taken by researchers who are not specialists in Sharia studies, but they are lawyers or journalists; like me. * They draw raw guidelines of the comparative methodology of research between articles of the Sharia Law and those of the statutory law. Throughout this dissertation, I am going to take articles of the British Media Law and compare them with the related provisions of the Sharia Law, giving enough examples in order to be able to make clear-cut conclusions about the main question of this dissertation which is: (The question of the dissertation) Can the modern Islamic movements, who are apparently going to rule the Arab countries after the Arab Spring, implement the Sharia Law and achieve the absolute justice which they raise as a slogan for their revolutions and electoral campaigns? Or would they worsen the already worsened situation of media law? Of course, regarding the other part of this dissertation, which is the statutory law, libraries are full of texts of law articles starting from the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in 1789, passing through the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights, ending with daily huge volumes of books, journals and articles studying new amendments and proposing new laws regarding recent details of the life of people in general and the work of media specifically. Terminology In order to have a good understanding for the real meaning and connotation of the Sharia Law concepts and cases, they have to be denoted by their names. Therefore, it is necessary here to have a list of the original names of the Sharia concepts and their definitions. The Holy Qur’an: defined previously. Surah: one complete chapter from the Holy Qur’an. Sowar: the plural of Surah. Sowar are different in length. Some are 1/3 a page and others exceed 40 pages. Aya: one verse from the Holy Qur’an. Ayat: a plural of aya. The Holy Sunnah: defined previously. Hadith: a verified saying for the Prophet Mohammed (PBUH). Ahadith: a plural of Hadith. Tafseer: the interpretation of the Holy Qur’an and the Holy Sunnah by professional credible Muslim scholars. Fatwa: a certain judgement on a certain case by a Sahaba, Tabe’een or confident Muslim scholars in a certain time or place. Plural is Fatawa. Ibada: the act of worshiping Allah (SWT) whether by heart or body. Any act of heart or body needs to start with intention of solely worship for Allah in order to be a true Ibada. Da’wah: the flow of activities Muslims do in illuminating the teachings of Islam. Dhimmi: the name of a non-Muslim citizen in the Islamic State. Ahludhimmah or Dhimmiyeen: plural of Dhimmi. Jezyah: the name of the religious tax for non-Muslims in the Islamic State. It is equivalent to the religious tax taken from Muslims, but Jezyah is a lesser amount of money that has many exceptions. Part Two: The Situation of Freedom of Expression Historical Background It is very important, before starting writing about the situation of freedom of expression in the statutory and the Sharia Law, to explore the general historical climates which preceded the emergence of both laws. That will give a kind of understanding of how much the improvements on the situation of freedom of expression both laws have achieved. * A Glimpse on Freedom of Expression in the West before the Renaissance The period which preceded what is known in Europe as the Renaissance was full of conflicts among the different castes of the European communities in general. That conflict took several forms. A prime one was the conflict between the Church and scientists and that between authority and people. Howard Turner describes a side of such conflicts: â€Å"The Middle Ages in Europe had long been dominated by an unending conflict between Church dogma and a kind of humanistic and individual quest for intellectual liberation. † Church and authority used to be allies and each institution worked for the protection of the other at the expense of people’s lives. They used to impose restriction on freedom of expression and there used to be no respect for people’s privacy. There was also a kind of blackout on external knowledge, fearing that it might undermine their power or alliance. The Thirteenth century was an â€Å"age in which kings and barons reacted to an insult by lopping off the offending tongue- or head†¦ The crime of ‘scandalum magnatum’ expressly protected ‘the great men of the realm’ from any statements that might arouse the people against them. † In France, for example, the king used to say â€Å"I am the state† and gave no space for people to have control in running their own or private life. The Church used to control science. Therefore, knowledge it saw as right, used to be spread, and that it saw as wrong, used to be damaged. A blockage was imposed on scientists and thinkers. In 1614, Galileo was accused of heresy  by the Church for his scientific theories. Eighteen years later, in 1632, he was sentenced to life imprisonment which was reduced to permanent house arrest after he had been obliged to withdraw his theories before the public by the Church. That time was the worst for women’s freedom. Women were inferior to men, troubled with Eve’s sin. They were subject to the authority of their fathers or their husbands. Violence in marriage did occur and was even encouraged. † The dark life of that age pushed people to seek a kind of salvation through knowledge, especially, after the appearance of new thinkers affected by the Muslims’ civilisation. According to Turner, the â€Å"Christian West† inherited the â€Å"scientific legacy from Islam. Thanks to increasing cultural traffic with Muslim lands via the busy Spanish and Sicilian gateways, the thriving routes of Mediterr anean and overland commerce, and the contacts left over from the Crusades. People sought to reinforce the principles of freedom and justice, which was clear in the slogan of the French revolution which was: liberty, equality and fraternity. The revolution in real freedom of expression has been from the Renaissance until today. However, there are still some issues which emerge from time to time that necessitate amendments of the existing laws or constituting new ones. * Freedom of Expression in Arabia before the Sharia Law In Arabia, there used to be kind of freedom of expression, but there was no justice. For example, men used to sit with each other and think about issues related to their tribes. But that right to give an idea or express an opinion was only for masters. Societies there used to consist of three castes: masters, subjects or alliances and slaves. In addition, that right among the masters was only for men. Women used to be suppressed and were not allowed to share opinions either in public affairs or even in family affairs. Women were used in the same way as goods. There used to be a diversity of religions. Arabia included pagans, Jews and Christians. But the most common was paganism. Surely, that kind of diversity hints at a kind of freedom of religion, but the opposite was the norm. Paganism, represented in worshiping idols, was the religion of the mainstream Arabs in Arabia and they used to keep an eye on those who converted to other religions. If they were young, they used to be fought; if they were old, they used to be left free since they could not affect others. Of course, chiefs and masters of tribes used to be happy with that kind of life because it helped them keep strong control over their subjects. However, suppressed castes needed any kind of powerful justice to liberate them from the chains of the different forms of slavery. From amongst that darkness, the message of the Sharia was revealed to the Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) to spread the justice and freedom among people. It is widely known among historians that a reasonable number of the people who joined the Da’wah at the early stages were from the ordinary people or alliances and slaves. Some of the masters asked the Prophet (PBUH) to dismiss them from around him if he wanted them, the masters, to join the Da’wah. Of course, ordinary people always lead reforms. A group of Muslim emigrants fled the persecution of their relatives in Mecca to Abyssinia and there was a short dialogue in the court of Abyssinia’s king, who was a true Christian. Their representative described the situation of Arabs before the Sharia and what the Sharia came with: â€Å"O king! We were plunged in the depth of ignorance and barbarism; we adored idols; we lived in unchastity; we ate dead animals, and we spoke abomination. We disregarded every feeling of humanity, and the duties of hospitality and neighbourhood. We knew no law but that of the strong. At that time, God raised from among us a man of whose birth, truthfulness, honesty and purity we were aware, and he called us to the Unity of God and taught us not to associate anything with Him. He forbade us to worship idols and enjoined us to speak the truth, to be faithful to our trusts, to be merciful, and to regard the rights of neighbours. He forbade us to speak ill of women and to eat the substance of orphans. He ordered us to flee from vices, to abstain from evil, to offer prayers, to render alms, and to observe the fast. † Constituted Rights to Freedom of Expression * Freedom of Expression in British Media Law As I have mentioned from the beginning, I am going to take the British law as an exemplar to represent the statutory law in this research. Therefore; I see that I have to propose an overall look at the British law and to see the situation of freedom of expression through it. British Law Unlike other countries, Britain does not have a written constitution. Referring to Britain, Tom Baistow says: â€Å"This country is the only one in the EEC without a written constitution and the only one without the press laws that form one of the most important guarantees of freedom of expression. However, it has a good record regarding the respect of freedom of expression. It got this reputation throughout historical fights of the British nation to attain freedom and adopt democracy. And as an ideal example of the fight to reach this situation, journalism in Britain â€Å"went through a brave battle against constitutional restrictions on publishing in the 19th century and could extract the right t o comment and publish. † Freedom of expression became one of the most respected freedoms as a kind of a social norm among the British people. It is believed in Britain that free speech is a significant pillar of a free democracy. The Royal Commission on the Press in 1977 defined freedom of expression â€Å"as that degree of freedom from restraint which is essential to enable proprietors, editors and journalists to advance the public interest by publishing the facts and opinions without which a democratic electorate cannot make responsible judgement. † This definition shows how the British believe in the vital role that freedom of expression plays in educating the public to be able to take right decisions in elections. It means that it is the main guarantor of a free democracy which is the main principle of a free State. Therefore, Solaiman Saleh described the situation of freedom of expression in Britain, despite the lack of a written constitution, saying: â€Å"The principle of a free press is reinforced in the collective conscience of the British. That forms a better protection which outweighs any written constitution. † Saleh continued explaining that it became a part of the British understanding of freedom of speech that the government does not have the right to interfere in the workflow of mass media. It cannot issue warrants, for example, to close any news platform, have pre-publishing restrictions/instructions or suggest amendments in the administrative systems or editorial policy. This is how James Curran portrayed the British press after the Second World War: â€Å"The press became fully independent of political parties and hence government. † The independence of the press gave it a great deal of space for free speech as well as unlimited power against governments. This was clear when the best wartime leader, British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, demanded an immediate closure of the Daily Mirror over its coverage of the conduct of war. That decision was followed by rough debates in the House of Commons and huge popular protests in Trafalgar Square and London’s Central Hall that pushed Churchill’s government to withdraw the decision against the Daily Mirror and, even, lift a ban previously imposed on the Daily Worker. Mass media regulation is only the role of the Parliament and Judiciary. In reply to the argument that the parliamentarian majority which forms the government may adopt any law suggested by it, Saleh argues that people who believe in the concept of freedom of expression will protest against the parliament and oblige it to stop the new law or to dissolve. The incident of the Daily Mirror mentioned above is a very clear example of that. The main pressure was represented by ‘organised protests’ in Trafalgar Square and London’s Central Hall. In addition, Hanna and Banks say in McNae’s Essential Law for Journalists: â€Å"Section 19 of the Human Rights Act created a requirement that a Minister introducing a Bill into Parliament must declare that its provisions are compatible with the European Convention, including thereby a commitment to freedom of expression. † Despite all the facts mentioned about the battles towards the freedom of expression in the English society, a sufficient protection for that freedom, which keeps up with the public-interest journalism, â€Å"from attacks for discomfiting the government or the judiciary or the wealthy private litigants† was not completely guaranteed. It is guaranteed by the adoption of international treaties, in which English writers and lawyers took a big part in constituting them, into the British law. Since then, clear articles of these treaties have become legal codes in the British law that guarantee a better freedom of expression. Throughout these facts, I can come to a conclusion that freedom of expression in Britain has certain principles that are clear. The main three principles could be summed up as following: 1. Government has no power against mass media. Robertson and Nicol explain how a government official does not have any privilege over the public in this regard. They say that if any official wanted to stop a news story, he has to go to the court the same as the public do. It means that government cannot control or suppress the voice of any single person directed to the public via any medium. It is believed that this is a sign of a free democratic State, but not in an arbitrary sense. Therefore, mass media have to be credible, and offenders should not escape punishment. John Whale quoted Sir William Blackstone, the eighteenth-century jurist, saying: The liberty of the press is indeed essential to the nature of a free State; but this consists in laying no previous restraints upon publication, and not in freedom from censure for criminal matter when published. † 2. Mass media are owned by the private sector and, therefore, it represents citizens before the government. However, citizens are stronger than the government in the democratic regimes; it means that mass media can publish any kind of opposite opinions without fearing suppression or oppression of the government. 3. Mass media turn to the public to face censorship. Robertson and Nicol say: â€Å"The best antidote to censorship is publicity. † When the government wishes to practice a kind of censorship, journalists can publicise that practice and the government does not have any power to punish them. The incident of the Daily Mirror mentioned above is a clear example on the three points mentioned. It shows how mass media are stronger than governments, how mass media speak on behalf of the public and how the public exerted pressure through protests that pushed the government to retreat from the closure warrant against the newspaper. Freedom of Expression in the Sharia Law The most prominent characteristic of the Sharia Law is that it is a religious law. It means that it has more emphasis, in all branches, on religious and moral values than other laws. Mohmmad Kamali says: â€Å"This can, perhaps, be clearly seen in reference to the Sharia rules pertaining to blasphemy, heresy and disbelief , where the dominant concern is to defend the dogma and belief-structure of Islam. † Muslim scholars and thinkers believe that this characteristic of the Sharia Law gives it a spiritual power, which is effective to keep stability of societies. Based on his understanding of the Islamic beliefs and to confirm that defending the dogma and belief-structure of Islam achieves social stability, 20th century Muslim thinker and reformer Sayyed Qutb, who interpreted the Holy Qur’an, says: â€Å"Social, economic and religious organisation goes side by side with a true ethical code and dogmatic belief†¦ in a complete, comprehensive, balanced and precise way. † Regarding freedom of expression and to show how much positive effect religion has on it, the Western writer, Patricia Crone, shed light on the way Muslim thinkers understand the relationship between freedom and religion. Patricia Crone reported Al-Ghazali, a famous medieval Muslim philosopher and reformer, explaining freedom in the Sharia as â€Å"no humans had the right to impose obligations on other humans, whether they were rulers, masters, fathers or husbands, or for that matter prophets; only God could do so. † Of course, Al-Ghazali’s understanding of that concept of freedom was based on the Holy Qur’an and the Holy Sunnah. Allah (SWT) asked his Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), in the Holy Qur’an, to tell people that he is a human like them.

Redaing 12am Focus Essay Questions

Redaing 12am Focus Essay Questions Redaing 12am Focus Essay Questions Reading 12AM – focus and essay questions FOCUS QUESTIONS: 1. To what extent is its historical period relevant to a discussion of â€Å"Twelve Angry Men†? 2. What can we conclude about the 8th juror’s personality from pages 1-7 of the play? 3. We never learn the characters’ names. Why does Rose choose to identify the men only by jury number and how does this affect the way we relate to the characters? 4. Read pages 7-15, how are we encouraged to sympathise with the 8th juror? 5. Read [pages 15-19, does 8th juror’s revelation about the second knife change your opinion at this stage about the defendant’s guilt or innocence? 6. On page 31, the characters exit to the washroom. Why? How does this affect the scene? 7. At the end of Act 1, to what extent are the characters presented as being either â€Å"good† or â€Å"bad† and to what extent are they complex and sometimes contradictory? 8. What changes are evident in 3rd and 10th juror’s speech and behaviour when they are in a minority and not safe majority? Ref pages 47-50. 9. Read pg 50 of the play. Why does the 11th juror believe jury duty is such a â€Å"remarkable’ aspect of the democratic process? Consider his personal background in your response 10. In pages51-54, 10th juror’s prejudices are revealed. How does Rose relate prejudice to fear? 11. 12th juror is the only one to change his vote more than once. What does this tell you about his character and how is he different to the others? 12. Why do you think 3rd juror finally change his vote? 13. How does Rose ensure that we judge 3rd juror’s stubbornness as a negative instead of a positive character trait? 14. The relationship between 3rd and 8th jurors is the central one in the play. Identify other important relationships between characters and discuss how they differ from this one. 15. Consider the play’s title. What might be the significance? 16. In what way does the 8th juror prove that democracy must be the responsibility of each and every individual? 17. To what extent is the 3rd juror a sympathetic character? 18. To what extent is the 10th juror the most frightening character in the play? Why? 19. Is it reasonable doubt that leads to the â€Å"not guilty† verdict, simple logic or a combination of both? 20. Does Rose suggest that there can be no such thing as a â€Å"fact,† or does he simply argue that it is difficult to establish the truth of any given â€Å"fact?† 21. In his play, what view does Rose present of the ageing process? Consider not only the 9th juror, but also the elderly witness and the female witness who was wearing â€Å"brand new clothes that should have been worn by a younger woman.† (pg 69) 22. What point do you think the play may be attempting to make about leadership in a democracy? 23. How does the play communicate the idea that democracy is an individual concept? 24. According to the play, what are some of the greatest dangers of allowing personal bias to go unchecked? 25. Are the issues of civic duty and social responsibility explored in Rose’s play relevant in contemporary Australian society? 26. In what ways are images of youth connected to the concept of powerlessness? 27. In what ways is the American justice system portrayed as weak and vulnerable? 28. Does the play privilege any one group of decision-making factors over the others, or suggest that any particular variables are more valid than others? Essay questions: 1. â€Å"12AM is best interpreted as an attack on the jury system.† Do you agree? 2. â€Å"Despite questioning the ultimate fairness and reliability of the jury system, 12AM is, at heart, a tribute to this system.† Discuss. 3. â€Å"We have reasonable doubt and this is a safeguard that has

Biography of Anna Comnena, the First Female Historian

Biography of Anna Comnena, the First Female Historian Byzantine Princess Anna Comnena (Dec. 1 or 2, 1083–1153) was the first woman known to personally record historical events as a historian.  She also was a political figure who attempted to influence royal succession in the Byzantine Empire. In addition to The Alexiad, her 15-volume history on her fathers reign and related events, she wrote on medicine and ran a hospital and is sometimes identified as a physician. Fast Facts: Anna Comnena Known For: First female historianAlso Known As: Anna Komnene, Anna Komnena, Anna of ByzantiumBorn: Dec. 1 or 2, 1083 in Constantinople, Byzantine EmpireParents: Emperor Alexius I Comnenus, Irene DucasDied: 1153 in Constantinople, Byzantine EmpirePublished Work: The AlexiadSpouse: Nicephorus Bryennius Early Life and Education Anna Comnena was born on Dec. 1 or 2, 1083, in Constantinople, which was then the capital city of the Byzantine Empire and later of the Latin and Ottoman empires and finally of Turkey. It has been called Istanbul since the early 20th century. Her mother was Irene Ducas and her father was the Emperor Alexius I Comnenus, who ruled from 1081 to 1118. She was the eldest of her fathers children, born in Constantinople just a few years after he took over the throne as emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire by seizing it from Nicephorus III. Anna seems to have been a favorite of her father. She was betrothed at a young age to Constantine Ducas, a cousin on her mothers side and a son of Michael VII, the predecessor to Nicephorus III, and Maria Alania. She was then placed under Maria Alanias care, a common practice of the time. The young Constantine was named a co-emperor and was expected to be heir to Alexius I, who at that time had no sons. When Annas brother John was born, Constantine no longer had a claim on the throne. He died before the marriage could take place. As with some other medieval Byzantine royal women, Comnena was well-educated. She studied the classics, philosophy, music, science, and mathematics. Her studies included astronomy and medicine, topics about which she wrote later in her life.  As a royal daughter, she also studied military strategy, history, and geography. Although she credits her parents with being supportive of her education, her contemporary, Georgias Tornikes, said at her funeral that shed had to study ancient poetry- including The Odyssey- surreptitiously, as her parents disapproved of her reading about polytheism. Marriage In 1097 at the age of 14, Comnena married Nicephorus Bryennius, who was also a historian.  They had four children together in their 40 years of marriage. Bryennius had some claim to the throne as a statesman and general, and Comnena joined her mother, the Empress Irene, in a vain attempt to persuade her father to disinherit her brother, John, and replace him in the line of succession with Bryennius. Alexius appointed Comnena to head a 10,000-bed hospital and orphanage in Constantinople. She taught medicine there and at other hospitals and developed expertise on gout, an illness from which her father suffered. Later, when her father was dying, Comnena used her medical knowledge to choose from among the possible treatments for him. He died despite her efforts in 1118, and her brother John became emperor, John II Comnenus. Succession Plots After her brother was on the throne, Comnena and her mother plotted to overthrow him and to replace him with Annas husband, but Bryennius apparently refused to take part in the plot. Their plans were discovered and thwarted, Anna and her husband had to leave the court, and Anna lost her estates. When Comnenas husband died in 1137, she and her mother were sent to live in the convent of Kecharitomene, which Irene had founded.  The convent was devoted to learning, and there, at age 55, Comnena began serious work on the book for which she will long be remembered. The Alexiad A historical account of her fathers life and reign that her late husband had begun, The Alexiad totaled 15 volumes when it was completed and was written in Greek rather than in Latin, the spoken language of her place and time. In addition to recounting her fathers accomplishments, the book became a valuable source to later historians as a pro-Byzantine account of the early Crusades. While the book was written to praise Alexius accomplishments, Annas place at court for most of the period it covered made it more than that. She had been privy to details that were unusually accurate for histories of the time period. She wrote about the military, religious, and political aspects of history and was skeptical of the value of the Latin churchs First Crusade, which occurred during her fathers reign. She also wrote of her isolation at the convent and of her disgust with her husbands unwillingness to carry through with the plot that would have put him on the throne, noting that perhaps their genders should have been reversed. Legacy In addition to recounting her fathers reign, the book describes religious and intellectual activities within the empire and reflects the Byzantine  concept  of the imperial office. It also is a valuable account of the early Crusades, including character sketches of the First Crusades leaders and of others with whom Anna had direct contact. Comnena also wrote in The Alexiad about medicine and astronomy, demonstrating her considerable knowledge of science. She included references to the accomplishments of a number of women, including her influential grandmother Anna Dalassena. The Alexiad  was first translated into English in 1928 by another pioneering woman, Elizabeth Dawes, a  British classical scholar and the first woman to receive a doctorate in literature from the University of London. Sources Anna Comnena: Byzantine Princess. Encyclopedia Britannica.Anna Comnena: Byzantine Historian of the First Crusade. Women in World History Curriculum.

Branding and promotion strategies, market segmentation, target Essay

Branding and promotion strategies, market segmentation, target marketing and positioning in international tourism - Essay Example Tourism Australia is a statutory body subject to the Commonwealth Authorities and Companies Act 1997 (CAC Act). This recognises the commercial focus of the new body and the need for it to operate flexibly in a commercial environment." The expenditure of tourist dollars by international visitors has the same economic effect for a country as selling products by export in international markets. Attracting international visitors is, therefore, encouraged by most countries around the world-especially by their governments and major tourist service providers such as airlines, hotel chains, major tourist attractions and tourist events. With increasing international travel, due to technological innovations in transportation and global communications, the competition for international tourists is increasing and, therefore, applying marketing principles and techniques to destinations has become a growing area of marketing practice. Of particular relevance to the international marketing of destinations are branding and promotion strategies, market segmentation, target marketing and positioning. Australia is a long-haul destination from many of the large tourist markets. ... ive skills and knowledge of four separate organisations: the Australian Tourist Commission; See Australia; the Bureau of Tourism Research and Tourism Forecasting Council. The main objectives of Tourism Australia under the Tourism Australia Act 2004 are to: Influence people to travel to Australia, including for events; Influence people travelling to Australia to also travel throughout Australia; Influence Australians to travel throughout Australia, including for events; Help foster a sustainable tourism industry in Australia; and Help increase the economic benefits to Australia from tourism. Tourism Australia is a statutory body subject to the Commonwealth Authorities and Companies Act 1997 (CAC Act). This recognises the commercial focus of the new body and the need for it to operate flexibly in a commercial environment." The expenditure of tourist dollars by international visitors has the same economic effect for a country as selling products by export in international markets. Attracting international visitors is, therefore, encouraged by most countries around the world-especially by their governments and major tourist service providers such as airlines, hotel chains, major tourist attractions and tourist events. With increasing international travel, due to technological innovations in transportation and global communications, the competition for international tourists is increasing and, therefore, applying marketing principles and techniques to destinations has become a growing area of marketing practice. Of particular relevance to the international marketing of destinations are branding and promotion strategies, market segmentation, target marketing and positioning. Australia is a long-haul destination from many of the large tourist markets. Therefore, the